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LlBROfJy 



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SD 373 
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COMl'XTS. 



The life of a tree 5 

The I larta c )f a t ree (i 

The food of a tree 7 

The composition of wood .S 

How the tree breathes t~. 8 

Transpiration !) 

The growth of a tree 9 

Tlie structure of wood 11 

Atuiual rings lo 

Heart wood and sapwood 13 

Trees in the forest 14 

The various requirements of trn-s If) 

Re(]uirenieuts of trees for heat and moisture , IH 

Re(]uirements of trees for liglit 17 

Tolerance and intolerance IS 

The rate of growth 19 

The reproductive powi'r of trees 'M 

Pure and mixed forest -! 1 

Reproduction by sprouts T.i 

The life of a forest '2',i 

A community of trees 23 

The life of a forest crop '2b 

The seven ages of a tree 2(5 

How the crop begins 2(5 

The forest cover established 27 

The 1 leginning of the struggle 27 

(4n iwt h in height 2S 

The struggle continued 29 

Natural pruning 29 

The culmination of growth .'Jl 

The end of the struggle 31 

Deatli fr< mi weakness and decay 32 

Destructive hiiubering 34 

Conservative lumbering 34 

Enemies of the forest 35 

Man and nature in the forest 35 

Grazing in the forest 35 

Grazing and tire 3t> 

Trampling 37 

Browsing 37 

Forest insects 38 

Forest fungi 38 

Wind in the forest 38 

Snow in the forest 40 

Forest fires 41 

Historic forest fires 42 

Means of defense 43 

Surface fires 44 

Ground fires 45 

Back firing 46 

Fire lines 47 



ILLUSTRATIOXS. 



Page. 

1. Roots, stem, and crown of ii young 81icll)iark lli<'k(iry 5 

2. Upturned skeleton roots of a Red Fir 6 

3. Trunks of two Red Firs 7 

4. Stem and crown of a Longleaf Pine 7 

5. Cross section of wood and bark of the Western Yelli>w Pine 9 

6. Yearly growth of a branch of Horse Chestnut 10 

7. Perpendicular cut of wood and bark of the Western Yrll<iw riiic 10 

S. Outer surface of bark of the Western Yellow Pine 11 

9. Wood of a spruce greatly magnified 12 

10. Wood of Western Hemlock 13 

1 1 . Ainiual rings 13 

1 2. A section of the common Staghorn Sumach 14 

13. A forest of palms in .southern Florida 1.5 

14. The Black Hemlock in its home 16 

15. Young oaks starting under an old forest of pines 19 

16. Winged seeds 20 

17. Chestnut sprouts from the stump 22 

18. Forest trees standing too far apart to help each other 24 

19. A White Pine sccdiiu;.', showing the slender roots 2.5 

20. Young White Pine seedlings whose lower branches have just begun 

to interfere 27 

21. Imperfect natural pruning of a White Pine that stood ti>o much alone 

in early youth 30 

22. I )iagram to show why a sharply conical crown receives mcire light than 

a flat one 32 

23. Young growth under old trees 33 

24. Destructive lumbering in the Coast Reflwood Belt 34 

25. Band of sheep in a forest reserve .36 

26. A windfall in the Olympic Forest Reserve 39 

27. .\ young spruce loaded with snow 40 

28. The rotting stubs of fire-killed veterans of Red Fir 41 

29. A surface fire burning slowly against the wind 44 

30. The effect of repeated fires 45 

31. The result of recurring fires 46 

32. Setting a back fire on the windward side nf a road 46 

33. A fire line along a railroad 47 

4 



A PRIMER OF FORESTRY. 



The object of forestry is to discovi 
iiig to which forests lire hest nuiti- 
iiued. It is distinct from arbori- 
culture, which deals with individual 
trees. Forestry has to do with sin- 
gle trees only as they stand together 
on some large area whose princi})al 
crop is trees, and which theret'oic 
forms part of a forest. The forest 
is the most highly organized portion 
of the vegetable world. It takes its 
importance less from the individual 
trees whicii lielpto form it than from 
tile qualities which belong to it as a 
whole. Although it is composed of 
trees, the forest is far more than a 
collection of trees standing in on(> 
place. It has a population of ani- 
mals and plants peculiar to itself, 
a soil largely of its own making, 
and a climate difl'erent in many 
ways from that of the open country. 
Its influence upon the streams alone 
makes farming possible in many 
regions, and everywhere it tends to 
prevent floods and drought. It sup- 
plies fuel, one of the flrst necessaries 
of life, and lumber, the raw material, 
without which cities, railroads, and 
all the great achievements of mate- 
rial progress would have been eithei- 
long delayed or wholly impossible. 
The forest is as beautiful as it is 
useful. The old fairy tales which 
spoke of it as a terrible place are 
wrong. No one can really know 
the forest without feeling the gentle 
influence of one of the kindliest and 



THE LIFE OF A TREE. 

andap])ly the print'iples accord- 




Fi'. 1. — ILodtH. stum, jiiul crown of a : 
Hliullbark Hickory. 



strongest parts of natui'e. Fi-oni ('\'ery point of view it is one of 
tlie. most helpful friends of ni;iii. Pcihaps no other natural agent has 
done so nuich for the human race ami has ht'cn so i-ecklessly used and 
so little understood. 

THE PARTS OF A TREE. 

In order rightly to understand the forest, something must first be 
known about the units of which it is made up. A tree, then, is a wood}- 
plant gi'owing up from the ground usually with a single stem (tig. 1). 
It consists of three parts: (1) The roots (tig. 2), which extend into the 








ik iK.li 1 suilln tliL In 



I ill r I \ I nil 

Mupit Pc-inuiuli \\asliiiiirtci 



ground to a depth of y> or 4 feet, or still farther when the soil is not 
too hai'd and they do not find moisture enough near the surfaet^; they 
hold the tree in place and take up from the soil wat(n-and cei-tain min- 
eral substances which the tree needs in its growth; (2) tlie trunk or 
stem (fig. 3), which supports the crown and supplies it with mineral 
food and water from the roots; (3) the crown itself (tig. 4), with its 
network of branches, buds, and leaves, in which the food taken up by 
the tree from the soil and air is worked over and made ready to assist 
in the growth of the whole plant. 

The crown has more to do with the life of the tree than its other 
parts, for the most important pi-ocesses in the r(>production of tiie tree 



and the digestion of its food take place in the crown. For this reason, 
and hecuuse we can control its shape and size more easily and directly 
than tliut (if th(! roots or trunk, the crown is of special interest to the 
forester. 1 1 is idniost exclusively with the crowns that he has to deal 

in tcnilini^- a rr(i[) of trees and jii-ejiarinj^- the way for tiie sut'ceedino' 




M 


^ 


^^mm 


«?> 


ylifSL ""^^HJIH 


KH^ 


''H^^Km 


m j 


^'^Jk^p^W^fj^ 


^ -",i^- 


nj ^^1^ 


w 


^^S^ 


K 


- J 


w 


^ ^^m^^^hm^t' I'^ll^ro^EI 


fet ^ 


iHB^Ki^^]^*^ «i ^^ ^^fe-'ir^ 





Fig. 3.— Trunks of two Red Firs of great 
size. Olympic Forest Reserve, Wash- 
ington. 



Flu. \. — Stem aiul crown (if a Longleuf Pine, the latter 
covered with moss swaying in the wind. 



yciieratidii. .\s they stand together in (lie ftirest. (he crowns of the 
trees form it broken .shelter, which is usually spoken of as the leaf 

CUIK 



ipv, hut which may better be called the coyer. 



THE FOOD OF A TREE. 



The materials upon which a tree feeds are derived from the soil and 
the air. The minute root hairs which spring from the rootlets tuke 
up water from the ground, and with it vtirious substances which it 



8 

holds in solution. These sire the earthy constituents of the tree, 
which reappear in the form of ashes when any part of it is burned. 
The water which contains these materials goes straight from the roots 
to the leaves, in which a most important process in the feeding of the 
tree takes place. The process is the assimilation or taking up and 
breaking up, by the leaves, of carbonic-acid gas from the air. It goes 
on only in the presence of light and heat, and through the action of 
chlorophjdl, a substance from which the leaves and the young bark 
get their green color. 

Plants containing chlorophyll are the chief means l)y which mineral 
materials are changed into food, so that nearly all plant and animal 
life depends upon them. Plant cells which contain chlorophyll t)reak 
up the carbonic-acid gas with which they come in contact, retain the car- 
bon, one of its elements, and .send back the other, oxygen, into the air. 
Then, .still under the influence of the sunlight, they combine the carbon 
with the oxygen and hydrogen of the watei' from the roots into new 
chemical compounds, in which nitrogen and the earth>' constituents 
mentioned alwve are also present; that is to sa}', the food materials 
which reach the tree through the roots and leaves are first digested in 
the leaves somewhat as food is digested in the human body, and are 
then sent to all living parts of the roots, stem, and crown, where thej' 
pass through another process of digestion, and are then either used 
at once in growth or stoi'ed away until the propei' moment arrives. 
This is the general rule, ]>ut it is believed that in some cases food 
taken up l)y the roots can be used without first being digested in the 
leaves. 

THE COMPOSITION OF WOOD. 

Wood is made up chiefly of carbon, oxygen, anil hytlrogen. ^\^hen 
perfectly dry, about half its weight is carbon, and half oxvg<Mi and 
hydrogen, in almost the same proportion as in water. It contains also 
about 1 part in 10(1. by weight, of eai-thy constituents, and nitrogen to 
the same amount. When wood is buined, all these materials disappear 
into the air except the earthy constituents. Now, the nitrogen and 
water tsiken up b\' the roots were originally in the air before they 
reached the ground. It i.s true, therefore, that when wood is burned 
those parts of it which came from the air go })ack into it in the form 
of gas, while those which came from the soil n^maiii behind in the 
form of ashe.s. 

HOW THE TREE BREATHES. 

Besides giving out oxygen in assimilation, trees also take in oxygen 
from the air through their leaves, and through the miiuite ojienings 
in the bark called lenticels, such as the oblong raised spots or marks 



9 

on the youno- l)ranches of liirch and cherry and miinv other trees. All 
plants, like all animals, l)i-eathe; and plants, like animals, breathe in 
oxyj^en and breathe out carbonic acid gas. This process of respiration 
or the breathini^- of the ti'ee goes on both day and night, but it is 
far les.s active than assimilation, which takes place only in the light. 
Consequently more carbonic-acid gas is taken into the ti-ee than is 
given out, and the surplus cai'boii 
remains to be used in growinsj-. 



TRANSPIRATION. 

The leaves gi\'e out not only the 
oxygen derived from the decom- 
position of carbonic-acid gas taken 
from the air and carbonic-acid gas 
produced in breathing, but also 
great quantities of water vapor. 
The amount of water taken up by 
the roots is very much larger than 
is i-equired to be coml)ined witli 
carbon and the earthy constituents 
in tlie leaves. In order that fresh 
supplies of earthy constituents in 
solution may reach the leaves rap- 
idly the water already in them 
m ust be go t o u t o f t h e way . This 
is effected Ijy transpiration, which 
is the evaporation of water from 
all parts of the tree above ground, 
but principally fi-oni the leaves. 
Even where the bark is very thick, 
as on the trunks of old oaks and 
chestnuts, transpiration goes on 
through the lenticels in the Iwt- 
toms of the deep cracks (fig. 5). 

It sometimes happens, especially in spring before the leaves come out, 
that transpiration can not get rid of the water from the roots as fast 
as it rises, and that it falls in drops from tiie l)U(ls, or later on even 
from the leaves themselves. 




. — Cross seutioii of wood ami bark of the 
Western Yellow Pine, shnwinjf t\v<.> of the deep 
cracks in the bark, at the bottom of which 
lenticels an- placed. 



THE GROWTH OF A TREE. 



The addition of new material in the way descril)ed in the preceding 
pages is the foundation of growth. Except in the buds, leaves, fruit, 
and the twigs le.ss than a year old, this material is deposited in a thin 
coat over the whoie tree between the wood and the bark. The new 



10 

twigs grow in length by a kind of stretching, ])ut only during the 
tirst year. Thus it is oidv l>v means of these youngest twigs that a 




Fiu. G. — Yearly ijrowlh of a brunch ui" Hur^L' (;:liL'slmit. Tin.' haml-s uf wrinkles mark the divisions 
between the growths of fonr snccessive years. The (iistnnce between these baitds would never 
have been greater thaii it was when the branch was cut. 



FUi. 7— E'erpeudiciihii 
bark into scales by II 
and bark. 




be division ()f the 



tree increases in height and in spread of branches. After the tirst 
year their length is fixed, younger twigs stretch out from the buds. 



11 

and the older ones grow henceforth only in thickness (tig. 6). The 
fresh coat of new material mentioned above covers them year })v year. 
There are two layers in this coat, s<^parated hy a third one of tender 
forming tissues called the cambium, in which the actual making of the 
new substance goes on. The inner sitU' of the cambium layer forms 
new wood, the outer side new bark. Besides the ti'ue cambium, which 
forms both wood and bark, there is another cambium which makes 
the corky outer bark and nothing else (tigs. 7 and S). This cork 
cambium mu\' (Micircii^ the whole tree, like tlie true caml>ium. as in the 




lied Cedar, oi- it may foiin little s('i);irate films i 
either casi' it dies from time to time and is rc-fDniu 



the l)ark. but in 
ni^arer the wood. 



THE STKUCTURE OF WOOD. 

Wood is chiefly made up of very small tul)cs or cells (tig. 9) of vari- 
ous kinds, which have special uses in the life of tlie tree. Some con- 
duct water from the roots to the crown, some store away digested 
food, and others merely strengthen the structure of the ^v•ood and hold 
it togetiier. The wood of cone-bearing or coniferous trees (like the 
pines and spruces) has but few kinds of cells, while that of the broad- 
leaf trees (such as oaks and maples) is much less simple. But in each 
case some of the cells have thick walls and small openings, and others 
wide openings and very thin walls. In climates which have regularly 
one season of growth and one of rest, like our own, the cells of the 



12 



r r^c 



<0 



H r 






layer of new wood formed each year at the inner surface of the cam- 
])iuni are arranged in a definite vfny. When growth ))egins in the 
spring, and the fresh twigs and leaves put out, there is a great demand 
for water in the crown to supply these moist green new parts of the 
tree. Water rises in most trees through the 
newer layers of the wood, and especiall}' 
through the last ring. Consequently, at first 
the tree makes thin-walled cells with wide 
openings, through which water can rise rap- 
idly to the ends of the branches. Later on, 
when the demand for water is not so great, 
and there is plenty of digested food to supply 
l)uilding material, the cells formed are narrow 
'^' [_^V^_ rC^CrV ■'"'^' thick-walled. Thus the summer wood 
in each year's growth is heavier, stronger, and 
darker in color than the spring wood. In 
the wood of many broad leaf trees, such as 
oak and chestnut, tlie spring wood is also 
mai'ked by a band of open tubes of larger 
size called ducts. In othei's, such as maple 
and beech, these ducts are scattered through 
the whole season's growth, and in all conifers, 
as for example the pines and cedars, they are 
entirely wanting. But the diti'erences in liard- 
ness and color between the growth of spring 
and summer are still present. It is sometimes 
possible to see the line which sepai'ates the 
growth of two seasons in the bark, as in 
the case of connnon cork, which is the outer 
bark of the Cork Oak, a native of southern 
Europe. 

If the trunk or branch of an oak tree is cut 
smoothly aci'o.ss, thin whitish lines may be 
seen running fi'om within outward (Hg. 10, 
))lock at the right). Some of the.se lines begin 
in the center of the tree and others in each 
one of the annual rings. These are the medul- 
lary ra_vs, which make the silver grain in 
i|uartered oak and other woods. They exist 
in all kinds of trees, but in many — as, for 
example, in the Chestnut and in most coni- 
fers — they are so fine as hardly to be seen with the naked ej'e. 
Seasoning cracks which run across the rings of growth always follow 
the lines of these rays, while others most often follow along some 
annual ring. 



^r r 












rU 









Fig. 'J.— Wuod of a si.riKi'. 
greatly niagniHed. 



13 

ANNTJAL RINGS. 

It i.s correct to .speak of the.sc rings of gi-o\vth as '"annual rings," 
for as long as the tree i.s growing healthily a ring is formed each year 




(Kgs. 1(), 11). It i.s true that two false rings may appear in one year, 
hut lhe\' are generally so much thinner than the rings on each side that 
it is not hard to detect them. Very 
often they do not extend entirely 
around the tree, as u true ring always 
does if the tree is sound. Whenever 
the growth of the tree is interrupted 
and begins again during the same 
sea.son, such a false ring is formed. 
This happens when the foliage is 
destroyed hy caterpillars and grows 
again in the same season, or when 
a very severe drought in early sum- 
mer stop.s growth for a time, after late frosts, and in similar ca.ses. 

HEABTWOOD AND SAPWOOD. 

An annual layer once formed does not change in size or place during 
the healthy life of the tree, except that it is covered in time by other, 
younger layers. A nail driven into a tree 6 feet from the ground will 
.still be at the same height after it is buried under 20 or 60 or JOG 
layers of atuuial growth. But in most trees, like the oaks and pines, 
the wood becomes darker in color and harder after it has been in the 




Fk!. 11.— Aimuiil rings. 



14 



ti'ee for some j'ears. The openings of its cells become choked so that 
the sap can no longer run through them. From living sapwood, in 
which growth is going on, it becomes hcartwood, which is dead, 
because it has nothing to do with growth (fig. 12). It is simply a strong 
framework which helps to support the living parts of the tree. This 
is why hollow trees may flourish and bear fruit. When the tree is 
cut down, the sapwotxl rots more easil}' than the heartwood, because 

it takes up water readily and con- 
tains plant food, which dccaj's very 
fast. Not all trees have heartwood, 
and in many the difference in color 
between it and tlie sapwood is very 
sliglit. Since water from the roots 
rises only in the sapwood, it is eas\' 
to Icill trees with heartwood by 
girdling them, provided all tiie sap- 
wood is cut through. But in tho.se 
which have no heartwood the tuhes 
(if the older layers of wood can still 
(Dnvey water to the crown, and 
when such trees are girdled it is 
often several years before they die. 
A great many theoi'ies have been 
proposed to account for the rise of 
water into the tops of tall trees, 
s )me of which, as in the big trees 
of California, may be over 300 feet 
from the ground. But none of these 
theories is quite satisfactory, and it 
must ))e admitted that we do not yet 
know how the trees supply their 
lofty crowns with the water which 
keeps them alive. 

TREES IN THE FOREST. 

The nature of a tree, as shown by 
\,'„i its behavior in the forest, is called 
1 niter jj^ silvicultural character. It is 
made up of all those qualities upon 
which the species as a whole, and ever^y individual tree, depend in their 
struggle for existence. The regions in which a tree will live, and the 
places where it will flourish best; the trees it will grow with, and those 
which it kills or is killed by; its abundance or scarcity; its size and 
rate of growth — all these things are decided l)y the inborn (jualities, 
or silvicultural character, of each particular kind of tree. 




the white sap« 
bark. Milfonl. !') 



15 



THE VARIOUS BEaXJIREMENTS OP TREES. 

Dirt'ereiit sjx'cirs of trees, like ditl'eieiit. races of men, have special 
re(|iiireiiieiits for the things upon which their life depends. Some 
races, like the Eskimos, live only in cold regions. Others, like the 
South Sea Islanders, must have a very warm climate to be comforta- 
ble, and are short-lived in any other (tig. 13). So it is with trees, 
except that their difl'erent needs are even more varied and distinct. 
Some of them, like the willows, birches, and spruces of northern Can- 
ada, stand on the boundary of tree growth within the Arctic^ Circle. 
Other species grow only in tropical lands, and can not ri'sist even the 




lightest frost. It is alwaj^s the highest and lowest temperature, rather 
than the average, which decides where a tree will or will not grow. 
Thus the average temperature of an island where it never freezes may 
be onlj^ 60'^, while another place, with an average of 70°, may have 
occasional frosts. Trees which could not live at all in the latter on 
account of the frost might flourish in the lower average warmth of 
the former. 

In this way »the influence of heat and cold on trees has a great 
deal to do with their distribution over the surface of the whole earth. 
Their distril)ution within shorter distances also often depends largely 
upon it. In the United States, for example, the Live Oak does not 



16 

grow in Maine nor the Canoe Birch in Florida. Even the opposite 
sides of the same hill inaj' be covered with two difl'erent species, 
because one of them resists the late and early frosts and the fierce 
middaj' heat of summer, while the other requii'es the coolness and 
moisture of the northern slope (fig. 14). On the eastern slopes, where 
the sun strikes early in the day, frosts in the spring and fall arc far 
more apt to kill the young trees or the blossoms and twigs of older 




ones th;in on those which face to the west and north, where growth 
begins later in the spring, and where rapid thawing, which does more 
harm than the freezing itself, is less likely to take place. 

REaUIIXEMENTS OF TREES FOR HEAT AND MOISTURE. 

Heat and moisture a<'t together upon trees in such a way that it i.s 
sometimes hard to distinguish their effects. A diy country or a dr}' 
slope is apt to l)e hot as well, while a cool northern slope is almost 
always moister than one turned toward the south. Still the results of 



17 

the demand of trees for water-ciui usually l)c distinguished from the 
results of their need of warmth, and it is found that moisture has 
almost as great an influence on the distribution of trees over the earth 
us heat itself. Indeed, within any given region it is apt to be much 
more conspicuous, and the smaller the region the more noticeable often 
is its effect, because the contrast is more striking. Thus it is fre- 
quently easy to see the difference between the trees in a swamp and 
those on a dry hillside nearl)v, when it would be far less easy to dis- 
tinguish the general character of the forest which includes both swamp 
and hillside from that of another forest at a distance. In many 
instances the demand for water controls distribution altogether. For 
this reason the forests on the opposite sides of mountain ranges are 
often composed of entirely different trees. On the west slope of the 
Sierra Nevada of California, for example, where there is plenty of 
moisture, there is also one of the most beautiful of all forests. The east 
slope, on the contrary, has compavativeh' few trees, Ijecause its rainfall 
is very slight, and those which do grow there are small and stunted in 
comparison with the giants on the west. Again, certain trees, like the 
Bald Cypress and the River_ Birch, are commonly found only in ver\' 
moist land; others, like the mescpiites and the Pinyon or Nut Pine, 
only on the driest soils; while still others, like the Red Cedar and the 
Red Fir, seem to adapt themselves to almost any degree of moisture, 
and are found on both very wet and verj^ dry soils. In this way the 
different demands for moisture often separate the kinds of trees which 
gi'ow in the bottom of a valley from those along its slopes, or even 
those in the gullies of hillsides from those on the rolling land between. 
A mound not more than a foot above the level of a swamp is often 
covered with trees entirely different from those of the wetter lower 
land about it. 

Such matters as these have far more to do with the places in which 
different trees grow than the chemical composition of the soil. But 
its mechanical nature — that is. whether it is stiff or loose, fine or coarse 
in grain, deep or shallow — is very important, because it is dii'ectly 
connected with heat and moisture and the life of the roots in the soil. 

REQUIREMENTS OF TREES FOR LIGHT. 

The relations of trees to heat and moisture are thus largely respon- 
.sible for their distribution upon the great divisions of the earth's 
surface, such as continents and mountain ranges, as well as over the 
smaller rises and depressions of every region where trees grow. But 
•while heat and moisture decide where the different kinds of trees can 
grow, their influence has comparatively little to do with the struggles 
of individuals or species against each othev for the actual possession 
26900— No. 173—03 2 



18 

of the gTouncl. The outcome of thesse struggles depends less on heat 
and moisture than on the possession of certain ijualities, among which 
is the ability to bear shade. With regard to this power trees are 
roughly divided into two classes, often called shade-bearing and light- 
demanding, following the German, but better named tolerant and 
intolerant of shade. Tolerant trees are those which flourish under 
more or less heavy shade in earlj^ youth; intolerant trees are those 
which demand a comparatively slight cover, or even imrestricted light. 
Later in life all trees require much more light than at first, and usually 
those of both classes can live to old age only when they are altogether 
unshaded from above. But there is always this difference between 
them: The leaves of tolerant trees will bear more shade. Consequently 
the leaves on the lower and inner parts of the crown arc more vigorous, 
plentiful, and persistent than is the case with intolerant trees. Thus 
the crown of a tolerant tree in the forest is usually denser and longer 
than that of one which bears less shade. It is usually true that the 
seedlings of trees with dense crowns are able to floui'ish under cover, 
while those of light-crowned trees are intolerant. This rough general 
rule is often of use in the study of forests in a new country, or of 
trees whose silvicultural character is not known. 

TOLERANCE AND INTOLERANCE. 

The tolerance or intolerance of trees is one of their most important 
silvicultural characters. Frequently it is the first thing a forester 
seeks to learn about them, because what he can safely luidertake in 
the woods depends so largely upon it. Thus tolerant trees will often 
grow vigorously under the shade of light-ci'owned trees (fig. 15) above 
them, while if the positions were reversed the latter would speedily 
die. The proportion of ditt'erent kinds of trees in a forest often 
depends on their tolerance. Thus hemlock sometimes replaces White 
Pine in Pennsylvania, because it can grow beneath the pine, and so be 
ready to fill the opening whenever a pine dies. But the pine can not 
grow under the hemlock, and can only take possession of the ground 
when a fire or a windfall makes an opening where it can have plenty 
of light. Home trees after being overshaded can never recover their 
vigor when at last they are set free. Others do recover and grow 
vigorously even after manj' years of starving under heavy shade. 
The Red Spruce in the Adirondacks has a wonderful power of this 
kind, and makes a line tree after spending the first fifty or even one 
hundred years of its life m reaching a diameter of two inches. 

The relation of a tree to light changes not onl}? with its age, but 
also with the place where it is growing, and with its health. An 
intolerant tree will stand more cover where the light is intense than 
in a cloud3' northern region, and more if H has plenty of water than 

J73 



19 

with ii scauty .supply- Vigorous seedlings will get along with less 
light than sickly ones. Seedlings of the same species will prosper 
under heavier shade if they have always grown under cover than if 
they have had plenty of light at first and have been deprived of it 
after^^ard.--. 




Ea tern N ith Car lina 



THE RATE OF GROWTH. 

The rate of growtli of different trees often decides which one will 
survive in the forest. For example, if two intolerant kinds of trees 
should start together on a burned area or an old field, that one which 
grows faster in height will overtop the other and destroy it in the 
end by cutting oif the light. Some trees, like the Black Walnut, grow 
rapidU- from their earliest youth. Others grow very slowly for the 
first few 3'ears. The stem of the Longleaf Pine, at 4 years old, is 
usuallj" not more than 5 inches in length. During this time the roots 
have been growing instead of the stem. The period of its rapid 
growth in height comes later. 

The place where a tree stands has a great influence on its rate of 
growth. Thus the trees on a hillside are often much smaller than 
those of equal age in the rich hollow below, and those on the upper 



20 

slopes of a high iiiountiiin arc ((minioiily starved and stunted in com- 
parison with the vigorous forest lower down. The Western Chinqua- 
pin, which reaches a height of 150 feet in the coast valleys of nortTiern 
California, is a mere shrut) at high elevations in the Sierra Nevada. 
The same thing is often observed in passing from the more temperate 
regions to the far north. Thus the Canoe Birch, at its northern limit, 
rises only a few inches above the ground, while farther south it becomes 
a tree sometimes 120 feet in height. 



THE REPRODUCTIVE POWER OF TREES. 



Another matter which is of tin 
the rcprodu<-tivc power of his trees 



fleopest interest to the forester is 
H;xce])t in the case of sprouts and 
other growth fed by old 
roots, this depends first 
of all on the quantity of 
the seed which each tree 
bears; ])ut so many 
other considerations 
afi'cct the result that a 
tree which bears seed 
al)undantly may not re- 
produce itself very wel i . 
A part of the seed is 
always unsound, and 
sometimes nuich the 
larger part, as in tlie 
case of the Tulip Tree. 
Hut even a great abun- 
danceof sound seed does 
not always insure good 
reproduction. Theseeds 
may not find the right 
surroundings for successful germination, or the infant trees may pi'rish 
for want of water, light, or suitable soil. Where there is a thick layer 
of dry leaves or needles on the ground, seedlings often perish in great 
numbers because their delicate rootlets can not reach the fertile soil 
beneath. The same thing happens when there is no hunnis at all and 
the surface is hard and dry. The weight of the seed also has a power- 
ful influence on the character of reproduction. Trees with iieavy seeds, 
like oaks, hickories, and chestnuts, can sow them only in their own 
neighborhood, except when they stand on steep hillsides or on the 
banks of streams, or when birds and squirrels carry the nuts and 
acorns to a distance. Trees with light, winged seeds (tig. 16), likethe 
poplars, birches, and pines, have a great advantage over the others, 




21 

l)eoause they can drop their seeds a long way oflf. The wuid is the 
means by whicrh this is l)ronght al)out, and the adaptation of the seeds 
themselves is often very curious and interesting. The wing of a pine 
seed, for example, is so placed that the seed whirls when it falls, in 
such a way that it falls very slowly. Thus the wind has time to carry 
it away before it can reach the ground. In heavy winds pine and other 
winged seeds are blown long distances — sometimes as much as several 
miles. This explains how' certain kinds of trees, like the (iray Birch 
and the White Pine, grow up in the middle of open pastures, and how 
others, such as the Lodgepole Pine, cover great areas, far from the 
parent trees, with young growth of even age. 

Such facts help to explain why, in certain places, it happens that 
when pines are cut down oaks succeed them, or when oaks are 
removed pines occupy the ground. It is very often true that young 
trees of one kind are already growing unnoticed beneath old trees of 
another, and so are ready to replace them whenever the old trees are 
cut away. 

PURE AND MIXED FOREST. 

The nature of the seed has much to do with the ilistri))utioii of trees 
in pure or mixed forest. Some kinds of trees usually grow in bodies 
of some extent containing only a single kind; in other words, in pure 
forest. The Longleaf Pine of the South Atlantic and Gulf States is 
of this kind, and so is the Lodgepole Pine of the West. Conifers are 
more apt to grow in pure forest than broadieaf trees, because it is 
more common for them to have winged seeds. The gi'eater part of 
the heavy-seeded trees in the United States are deciduous, and most 
of the deciduous trees grow in mixed forest, although there are some 
conspicuous exceptions. But even in mixed forests small groups of 
trees with heavy seeds are common, because the young trees naturally 
start up beneath and around the old ones. A 'heavy seed, dropping 
from the top of a tall tree, often strikes the lower branches in its fall 
and bounds far outside the circle of the crown. Trees which are 
found only, or most often, in pure forest are the social or gregarious 
kinds; those which grow in mixture with other trees are called 
scattered kinds. Most of the hardwood forests in the United States 
are mixed; and many mixed forests, like that in the Adirondacks, 
contain l)oth broadieaf trees and conifers. The line between grega- 
rious and scattered species is not always well marked, because it often 
happens that a ti'ee may be gregarious in one place and live with 
many others elsewhere. The Western Yellow Pine, which forms, on 
the plateau of central Arizona, perhaps the largest pure pine forest 
of the earth, is frequently found growing with othei' species in the 
mountains, especially in the Sierra Nevada of central California. 



22 

Trees ■which occupy the yrouiid to the exclusion of all others do so 
l>ecaus(> th(M- succeed hcttcr. under the con<litious, than tlieir comiieti- 




Fi'i. ]7.— Clicstiiut sprouts from the stump. 

tors. It may he that they are al)le to get on with le.ss water, or to 
grow on poorer soil, their rate of growth or power of repi-oduction 



23 

may he gi'eatei-, or there may l>e some other reason why they are bet- 
ter titted for theii' surroundings. But the gregarious trees are not all 
alike in their ability to sustain themselves in different situations, 
while the differences between some of the mixed-forest species are 
very marked indeed. Thus, Black Walnut, as a rule, grows only in 
rich, moist soil and Beech only in damp situations. Fire Cherry, on 
the other hand, is most common on lands which have been devas- 
tated l\y tire, and the Rock Oak is most often found on dry, barren 
ridges. The Tupelo or Black Gum and the Red ^Nlaple both grow 
best in swamps, })ut it is a conmion thing to find them also on dry, stony 
soils at a distance from water. The knowledge of such ([ualities as 
these is of great importance in the management of forest lands. 

REPRODUCTION BY SPROUTS. 

Besides reproduction from seed, which plays so large a part in the 
struggle for the ground, reproduction })y sprouts from old roots 
or stumps (tig. 17) is of great importance in forestry. Trees differ 
very much in their power of sprouting. In nearh' all conifers except 
the California coast Redwood, which has this ability beyond almost 
ever}' other tree, "it is lacking altogether. The Pitch or Jack Pine of 
the Eastern United States has it also to some extent, but in most 
places the sprouts usually die in early youth and seldom make mer- 
chantable ti'ees. In the broadleaf kinds, on the other hand, it is a 
general and very valuable quality. Young stumps, as a rule, are much 
more productive than old ones, although some prolific species, like the 
Chestnut, sprout plentifully in old age. Other species, like the Beech, 
furnish numerous sprouts from young stumps and very few or none 
at all from old ones, and still others never sprout freely even in early 
youth. 

THE LIFE OF A FOREST. 

The history of the life of a forest is a story of the help and harm 
which the trees receive from one another. On one side every tree is 
engaged in a relentless struggle against its neighbors for light, water, 
and food, the three things trees need most. On the other side, each 
tree is constantly working with all its neighbors, even those which 
stand at some distance, to bring about the best condition of the soil 
and air for the growtli and fighting power of every other tree. 

A COMMUNITY OF TREES. 

The life of a community of trees is an exceedingly interesting one. 
A forest tree is in manj' ways as nuich dependent upon its neighbors 
for .safety and food as are the inhabitants of a town upon one another. 
The difference is that in a town each citizen has a special calling or 
occupation in which he works for the service of the commonwealth, 
while in tiie forest everv tree contriliutes to the general welfare in 



24 

nearh' all the ways in which it is benefited by the conimunit}-. A for- 
est tree helps to protect its neighlioi-s against the wind, which might 
overthi'Gw them, and the sun, which is ready to dry up the soil about 
their roots or to make sun cracks in their bark by shining too hotly 
upon it (tig. 18). It enriches the earth in which they stand b^- the fall 
of its leaves and twigs, and aids in keeping the air about their crowns, 
and the soil about~their roots, cooler in summer and warmer in winter 
than it would he if each tree stood alone. With the others it forms a 




Fig. is.— Forest trees stanrtiHK h 



common canopy under which the seedlings of al! the members of this 
protective union are sheltered in early j'outh, and through which the 
beneficent influence of the forest is pi-eservedand extended far beyond 
the spread of the trees themselves. But while this fruitful coopera- 
tion exists, there is also present, just as in a village or a city , a vigorous 
strife for the good things of life. For a tree the l)est of these, and 
often the hardest to get. are water for the roots and space and light 
for the crown. In all l)uf very di-y places there is water enough for 



25 



all the trees, and often more than enough, as for example in the 
Adirondack forest. The struggle for space and light is thus more 
important than the struggle for water, and as it takes place above 
ground it is also much more easily observed and studied. 

Light and space are of such impoi'tance because, as we have seen, 
the leaves can not assimilate or digest food except in the presence of 
light and air. The rate at which a tree can grow and make new wood 
is decided chiefly by its ability to assimilate and digest plant food. 
This power depends upon the number, size, and health of the leaves, 
and these in turn u]ion th(> amount of space and light which the tree 
can secui'e. 

THE LIFE OF A FOREST CROP. 



thi'ii l:irg('ly an account of 
»ini. Mini. altlioiii'-li the \"erv 



The story of the life of a roicst croi) 
the competition of the trees for liglit an 
strength which enables 
them to carry on the 
fight is a result of their 
association, still the 
deadly struggle, . in 
which the victims arc 
many times more in 
number than those 
which survive, is apt 
alone to absorb the at- 
tention. Yetthe mutual 
help of the trees to each 
other is always going 
quieth'on. Every tree 
continually comforts 
and assists the other 
trees, which are its 
friendly enemies. 

The purpose here is 
to follow the progress 
of a forest crop of uni- 
form age from the seed 
through all the succes- 
sive phases of its life 
until it reaches matu- 
rity, bears seed in its 
turn, and finallv de- 

,. . . ,.,.." , Fl... I'J.— A Wllilu Pillr sc.-.llilii;, sllmvi].!,Mll..yk■Il.U■rr.l()t^. 

cbnes m tertility and 

strength until at last it passes away and its place is tilled by a new 
generation. The life history which we ai-e about to follow , as it unfolds 
itself through the course of several hundred yeai's, is full of struggle 




26 

and danger in youth, restful and dig-nitied in age. The changes which 
pass over it are vast and full of the deepest interest, hut they are very 
gradual. From beginning to end one stage melts insensibly into the 
next. Still, in order to study and describe them (H)nveniently, each 
stage must have limits and a name. 

THE SEVEN AGES OF A TREE. 

Avery practical way of classifying trees according to size is the fol- 
lowing: Young trees which have not yet reached a height of 3 feet 
are sesdlliK/x (tig. 19). They are called .seedlings in spite of the fact 
that any tree, of whatever age, if it grew from a seed, is properly 
called a .seedling tree. Trees from 3 to 10 feet in height are huuiU 
fniplinyx, and from 10 feet in height until they reach a diameter of i 
inches they are hiiyi' saplings. Small p< ilex are from 4- to 8 inches in 
diameter, and Imyt^ j>olfS from Sto 12 inches in diameter. Trees from 
1 to 2 feet through are standards, and, hnally, all trees over 2 feet in 
diameter are veterans. 

It is very important to remember that all these diameters are meas- 
ured at the height of a man's chest, about 4 feet 6 inches from the 
ground. In forestry this is, roughly speaking, the general custom. 

HOW THE CROP BEGINS. 

Let us imagine an abundant crop of tree seeds lying on the ground 
in the forest. How they came there does not intere.st us at present; 
we do not care to know whether they were carried by the wind, as 
often happens with the winged seeds of manj' trees, such as pines and 
maples, whether the squirrels and birds dropped and planted some 
of them, as they frequently do acorns and chestnuts, or whether the 
old trees stood closely about and sowed the .seeds themselves. We 
will suppose them to be all of one kind, and to be scattered in a place 
where the soil, the moisture, and the light are all just as thcT should 
1)6 for their successful germination, and afterwards for the later stages 
of their lives. Even under the best conditions a con.siderable part of 
the fallen .seed may never germinate, but in this case we will assume 
that half of it succeeds. 

As each seed of our forest germinates and pushes its tirst slendei- 
rootlet downward into the earth, it has a very uncertain hold on lite. 
Even for some time afterwards the danger from frost, drynes.s, and 
excessive moisture is very serious indeed, and there are many other 
foes by which the young .seedlings may be overcome. It sometimes 
happens that great numbers of them peri.sh in their earliest youth 
becau.se their roots can not reach the soil through the thick, dry coating 
of dead leaves which covers it. But our young trees pass through the 
beginning of these dangers with comparatively little loss, and a plenti- 
ful crop of seedlings occupies the ground. As yet, however, each 



little treo stands free from those about it. As j'et, too, the life of the 
\()iiny foivst iiuiy he threatened or i'\eii destroyed by any one of the 
enemies already mentioned, or it may suffer just as severely if the 
cover of the older trees above it is too dense. In the beginning of 
their lives seedlings often i-equire to ])e protected In' the shade of their 
elders, but if this protection is too long continued they sutler for want 
of liglit, and are either killed outright or live only to drag on stunted 
and unliealthy lives. 

THE FOREST COVER ESTABLISHED. 

The (Top which we are following has had a suitable proportion of 
shad(( and light during its earliest years, and the seedlings have spread 
until their crowns begin to meet. Hitherto each little tree has had all 
the space in the ail' and soil that it need(>d for the expansion of its top 




Fk:. 20.— Youug White Pine seedlings whu»e li>wer braiiehes have just begun to iuterfere. 



and roots. This would have been entirely good, except that meanwhile 
the soil about the trees has been more or less exposed to the sun and 
wind, and so has become dryer and less fertile than if it had been under 
cover, and consequently the growth has been slow. Hut now that the 
crowns are meeting, the situation becomes wonderfully changed. 
The soil ])egins to improve rapidly, because it is ])rotected by the cover 
of the meeting crowns (tig. 2(») and enriched by tlie leaves and twigs 
which fall from them. 



THE BEGINNING OF THE STRUGGLE. 

In .so far the conditions of life are better, and in consec{uence the 
growth, and more especially the height growth, begins to show a 
marked increase. On the other hantl, till the new strength is in 



28 

immediate demand. With the added vigor which the trees are now 
helping eacli other to attain, comes the most urgent need for rapid 
development for the decisive struggle at hand. The roots of the 
j^oung trees contend with each other in the .soil for moi.sture and the 
plant food which it contains, while in the air the crowns struggle for 
space and light. The latter is by far the more important battle. The 
victors in it overcome by greater rapidity of growth at the ends of the 
branches, for it is by growth there, and there only, that trees increase 
in height and spread of crown. Growth in this way was going on 
unchecked among the young trees before the crowns met, but now onlj^ 
the upward-growing branches can develop freely. The leaves at the 
ends of the side branches have now less room and, a))ove all, less light, 
for they are crowded and thrust aside by those of the other trees. 
Very often they ai'e l)ruised l)y thrashing against their neigh))ors when 
the wind blows, or even broken ofl' while still in the bud. Leaves 
exposed to such dangers are unhealthy. They transpire less than the 
healthy un(listui-l)ed leaves of the upper part of the crown, and more 
and more of the undigested food from the roots goes to the stronger 
leaves at the top as the assimilating power of the side leaves dwindles 
with the loss of light. The young branches share the fortunes of their 
leaves and are vigorous or sickly according to the condition of the latter. 
For this reason the growth of the tops increases, while that of tiie lower 
lateral branches, as the tops cover them with a deeper and deeper 
shade, becomes less and less, (iradtially it cea.ses altogether, and the 
branches perisli. This jirocess is called natural pruning, and from 
the time when it l)egiiis tlie existence of the young forest, unless it 
should l)e oveitakeii l>y (iic or sonic other great calainity. is practically 
secure. 

GROWTH IN HEIGHT. 

At this time, as we have seen, tlie crowns of all the young trees are 
growing faster at the tops than at the sides, for there is unlimited 
room a})0ve. But some are growing faster than others, (hither liecause 
their roots are more developed or in better soil than those of tlie 
trees about them, because they have been freer from the attacks of 
insects and other enemies, or for some similar reasons. Some trees 
have an inborn tendency to grow faster than others of the same 
species in the same surroundings, just as one .son in a familj' is often 
taller than the brothers with whom he was lirought up. 

Rapid growth in height, from whatever cause it proceeds, lirings 
not only additional light and air to the tree which excels in it, but 
also the chance to spread laterally, and so to complete the defeat of 
its slower rivals l>y ovei'topping liiein. 



29 



THE STRUGGLE CONTINUED. 



Those tr('(\s wliicli luivc giiiued thi.s iidviintiigc over tlieir neighl)ors 
are called dominant trees, while the surviving laggai'ds in the race are 
said to he overtopped when the}' are hopelessly l)ehind, and retarded 
when less badlj' beaten. Enormous numbers of seedlings and small 
saplings are suppressed and killed during the early youth of the 
forest. In the v'oung crop which we are following man}' thousands 
perish upon every acre. Even the dominant trees, which are tem- 
porarily free when they rise above their neighbors, speedily come 
into conflict with each other as they spread, and in the end the greater 
portion is overcome. It is a very deadly struggle, but 3'ear by 3'ear 
the difl'erences between the trees become less marked. Each separate 
individual clings to life with greater tenacity, the strife is more pro- 
tracted and severe, and the number of trees which pei'ish grows 
liipidly smaller. But so great is the pressure when dense groups 
of young trees are evenly matched in size and rate of growth that it 
is not very unusual to tind the progress of the young forest in its 
early stages almost stopped and the trees uniformly sickly and under- 
sized, on account o,f the crowding. 

The forest we have been following has now passed thi-ough the 
small-sapling stage, and is composed chiefly, but not exclusively, of 
large saplings. Among the overtopped and retarded trees, which 
often remain iu size classes which the dominant trees have long since 
outgrown, there are still many low saplings. Even between the 
dominant trees, in a healthy forest, there are alwaj'S great differences. 
Increase in height is now going on ra])idly among these high sap- 
lings, and either in this stage or the next a point is reached when 
the topmost branches make their longest yearly growth, which is one 
way of saying that the trees make their most rapid height growth as 
large saplings or smali poles. Later on, as we shall see, these upper 
branches lengthen much more slowly, until, in standards and veterans, 
the growth in height is small, and in \cry old trees finally ceases 
altogether. 

NATURAL PRUNING. 

While the trees ari' pushing u[) most rapidly, the side l)ranches are 
"most quickl}' overshaded, and the process of natural pruning goes on 
with the greatest vigor. Natural jiruning Is the reason why old trees 
in a dense forest have only a small crown high in the air, and why 
their tall, straight trunks are clear of branches to such a height above 
the ground. The trunks of trees grown in the open, where even the 
lower limbs have abundance of light, are branched either quite to the 
ground or to within a short distance of it (fig. 21). But in the forest 
not only are the lower side branches continually dying for want of 
light, but the tree rids itself of them after they are dead and so frees 



30 

its trunk from them entirely. When a branch dies the annual layer 
of new wood is no longer deposited upon it. Consequently the dead 




Fi«. 21.— ImiJtrlcct imtuful i 



branch, where it is inserted in the tree, makes a little hole in the first 
coat of living tissue formed o\'er the live wood after its death. The 



31 

edg'ct* of tliis hole make a soi"t of ctjllar about the base of the dead 
branch, and as a new layer is added eaeh year they press it more and 
more tif^htly. So strong does this compression of the living wood 
become that at last what remains of the dead tissue has so little 
sti'ength that the branch is broken ofl' by a storm or even "falls of its 
own weight. Then in a short time, if all goes well, the hole closes, 
and after a while little or no exterior trace of it I'eniains. Knots, 
such as those which are found in boards, are the marks left in the 
trunk by l)ranchc.s which have disappeared. 

THE CULMINATION OF GBOWTH. 

While the young trees are making clean trunks bo rapidly during 
the period of greatest yearh* height growth they are also making their 
greatest annual gains in diameter, for these two forms of growth gen- 
erally culminate about the same time. A little later, if there is an\' 
difference, the young forest's highest yearly rate of growth in volume 
is also reached. For a time these three kinds of growth keep on at 
the same rate as in the past, but afterwards all three begin to decrease. 
Growth in diameter, and in volume also, if the trees are sound, goes 
on until extreme old age, but height growth sinks very low while the 
two others are still strong. For many years before this happens the 
struggle between the trees has not been so deadly, because they have 
been almost without the means of overtopping one another. When 
the end of the period of principal height growth is reached the trees 
are interfering with each other very little, and the struggle for life 
begins again in a different way. As the principal height growth 
ceases, and the tops no longer shoot up rapidly above the side 
branches, the crowns lose their pointed shape and become compara- 
tively flat. The chief reason why trees stop growing in height is that 
they are not able to keep the upper parts of their crowns properly 
supplied with water above a certain distance from the ground. This 
distance varies in different kinds of trees, and with the health and 
vigor of the tree in each species, but there is a limit in every case 
above which the water does not reach. The power of the pumping 
machinery, more than any other quality, determines the height of the 
tree. 

THE END OF THE STRUGGLE. 

Now that the tree can no longer expand at the top, it must either 
suffer a great loss in the number of its leaves or be able to spread at 
the sides: for it is clear that not nearly so many leaves can be exposed 
to the light in the flattened crown as in the pointed one. just as a 
pointed roof has more surface than a flat one (fig. 22). It is just at 
this time, too, that the trees begin to bear .seed most abundantly, and 
it is of the greatest importance to each tree that its digestive appa- 



32 



ratus in the leaves should bo able to furnish a large supply of digested 
food. Consequeiitlj tlie struggle for space is fiercely renewed, only 
now the trees no longer attempt to overtop one another, having lost 
the power, but to crowd one another awaj' at the sides. The whole 
forest might sufler severely at this point from a deadlock such as 
sometimes happens in early youth were it not for the fact that the 
trees, as they grow older, become more and more sensitive to any 
shade. Many species which stand crowding fairly well in 3'outh can 
not thrive in age unless their crowns are completely free on every 
side. Each of the victors in this last phase of the struggle is the sur- 
vivor of hundreds (or sometimes even of thousands) of seedlings. 
Among verj' numerous competitors they have shown themselves to be 
the best adapted to their surroundings. 

Natural selection has niade it clear that these are the best trees for 
the place. These are also the trees which bear the seed whence the 
younger generations spring. Their offspring will 
inherit their fitness to a greater or less degree, 
and iti their turn will be subjected to the .same 
rig(M-ous test, by which only the best are allowed 
to roach matui'it}'. Under this sifting out of the 
weak and the unfit, our native trees have been 
prejiarod through thousands of generations to 
moot the conditions under which they must live. 
This is why they are so much more apt to succeed 
than species from abroad, which have not been 
fitted for our climate and soil by natural selection. 
The forest which we .saw first in the .seed has 
now pa.ssed through all the more vigorous and 
active stages of its life. The trees have become 
standards and veterans, and large enough to 1)0 valuable for lumber. 
Kaj)id growth in height has long been at an end, diameter growth is 
slow, and the forest as a whoh; js increasing very little in volume as 
time goes on. The trees are I'ijic fni- tiie harvest. 

Out of the many things wliic li MiJLiht happen to our malure forest, 
wo will onlv consider three. 




Fig. 22.— DiuKiiuu to show 
win- a stmrply coiiioal 
crown receives more light 
than a flat one. 



DEATH FROM WEAKNESS AND DECAY. 

In the first place, we will suj)])ose that itstands untouciieil until, like 
the trees of the virgin forest, it meets its death from weakness and 
decay. 

The trees of the mature primeval forest live on, if no accidents 
intervene, almost at peace among themselves. At length all conflict 
between them ends. The whole power of each tree is strained in a 
new struggle against death, until at last it fails. One by one the old 
trees disappear. But long before they go the fQi'erunners of a new 



33 

genpration have sprung up wherevei* light camo in between their 
isolated crowns. As the old trees fall, with intei'vals often of inan}^ 
years between their deaths, young growth of various ages rises to take 
their place (fig. 2?)), and when the last of th(>. old forest crop has vanished 
there may be differences of a hundi-ed }-(>ars among the young trees 
which succeed it. An even-aged crop of considerable extent, such as 
wc have been consideinng, is not usual in the virgin forest, where 
trees of \ery different ages grow side bj' side, and when it does occur 
the next generation is far less uniform. The forest whose history has 
just been sketched was chosen, not because it represents the most 




common type of natural forest, but because it ilkistrates better than 
any other the progress of forest growth. 

The wood of a tree which dies in the forest is almost wholly wasted. 
For a tmie the rotting ti-unk may serve to retain moisture, but there 
is little use for the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen which make up its 
greater part. The mineral constituents alone form a useful fertilizer, 
but most often there is already an abundance of similar material in 
the soil. Not only is the old tree lost, but evei- since its maturity it 
has done little more than intercept, to no good purpose, the light 
which would otherwise have given vitality to a valuable crop of 
younger trees. It is only when the ripe wood is harvested properly 
and in time that the forest attains its highest usefulness. 
2G900— No. 173—03 3 

173 



31 



DESTRUCTIVE LUMBERING. 



A ficcond thing wliich may happen to a forest is to be cut down 
without care for the future (iig'. 2J:). The yield of a forest lumbered in 
the usual way is more or less thoroughly harvested, it is true, ))ut at an 
enormous cost to the forest. Ordinary lumbering injures or destroys 
the 3'oung growth. ))oth in the ]irpsent and for the future, provokes 
and feeds fires, and does harm of many other kinds. In many cases 




i-i(j. .1.— lK->lniLlnL' llDlll 



-t I,m1u,,,„1 Ijrlt, Uumbol(it Count;, LaL 



its result is to aniiiiiilatc the productive capacity of forest land for 
tens or scores of years to couk*. 



CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING. 

Correct methods of forestry', on the other hand, maintain and increase 
l)otIi the productiveness and the capital value of forest land; harvest 
the yield far more comj^letely than ordinary lumbering, although less 
rapidly; prepare for, encourage, and preserve the young growth; tend 
to keep out fires; and in general draw from the forest, while pro- 
tecting it, the best return which it is capalile of giving. 

The application of such methods is the third possibility for the 
crop just described, and in their application is to be found the 
wisest, safest, and most satisfactory way of dealing with the forest. 



Then- iiiT still iiiiiny ))liiccs in tlic I'nitprl States, however, where 
transportiitioii is so costl}- that, as yet, forestry NA'ill not pay from a 
business point of view . 

ENEMIES OF THE FOREST. 

The fofesi is threatened by iii;my ciiciiiics, ol' wiiich Hiv and reck- 
li'ss lumbering are th(>- worst. Tn the United States sheep grazing and 
w ind eom(> next, (battle and horses do much less damage than sheep, 
and snow break is less costly than windfall. 1 landslides, floods, insects, 
and fungi are sometimes very harmful. 1 ii certain situations numbers 
of trees are killed by lightning, which has also been known to set the 
woods on fire, and the forest is attacked in man}' other waj's. For 
example. l)irds and s(|uirrels often prevent young growth by devour- 
ing great ([uantities of nuts and other seeds, while porcupines and 
mice fr(M|U('ntly kill young trees by gnawing away thcii' bark. 

MAN AND NATURE IN THE FOREST. 

Most of thes(> I'oes may be called natural enemie>, for they would 
injure the forest tc,) a greater i>i' less (>xtent if the action of man were 
altogether removed. Wild animals would take the place of domestic 
sheep and cattle to some degree, and fire, wind, and insects would still 
attack the forest. But many of the most serious dangers to the forest 
are of human origin. Such are destructive lumbering (tig. 2-4) and 
excessive taxation on forest lands, to which nuich bad lumbering is 
directly due. So high are these taxes, for in many cases they amount 
to 5 or even <i per cent yearly on the market valuta of the forests, that 
the owners can not afl'ord to pay them and hold their lands. Conse- 
quently they are forced to cut or sidl their timl)ei- in haste and 
without regard to the future, ^^'h(■n tlie timber is gone the owners 
refuse to pay taxes an\- longer, and tlie devastated lands revert to the 
State. Man\^ thousand square miles of forest have been ruined by 
reckless lumbering, l)ecause heavy taxes forced the ownei's to realize 
quickly and once for all upon their foi'est land, instead of cutting it 
in a way to insure valuable future crops. For the same reason many 
counties ai'e now poor that might, with i'(>asonal)le taxation of timber 
land, have been flourishing and rich. 

GRAZING IN THE FOREST. 

Whether o-razing animals are comparatively' harmless to the forest 
or among its most dangerous enemies depends on the age and charac- 
ter of the woods as well as upon the kind of animals that graze. 
A voung forest is always more exposed lo such injury than an old 
one, and steep slopes are more subject to damage than more level 
o-round. Whether the young trees are conifers, and so more likely 



36 

to suffer fi'oni tranipling- than from being eaten, or broadleaf trees, 
and so n>ore likely to be devoured, they should be jjrotected from 
pasturing animals until they arc large enough to be out of danger. 



GRAZING AND FIBE. 

Grazing in the forest does harm in three ways. First, it is a fertile 
cause of forest fires. Burning the soil cover of grass and othci' 
plants improves the grazing, either permanently, by destroying the 
forest and so extending the area of pasturage, or temporarily, })y 




Fig. 25. — Baud of sheep in a forest reserve. Cascade Mountains, Wa 
5,«00 feet. 



County, Greg. Altitude, 



improving the quality of the feed. For one or the other of these 
objects, but chiefl}^ for the latter, vast areas are annually burned over 
in nearly every part of the United States where trees grow. The 
great majority of these fires do not kill the old trees, but the harm 
they do the forest and, eventually, the forage plants themselves, is 
very serious indeed. The sheepmen of the West are commonly 
accused of setting many forest fires to improve thi> grazing, and they 
are also vigorously defended from this charge. Rut the fact remains 
that large areas where sheep now graze would be covered with forests 
except for the action of more or less I'ccent fires. 



37 

TRAMPLrHG. 

Trampling is the second way in which grazing animals injure the 
forest. Cattle and' horses do comparatively little harm, although 
their hoofs compact the soil and often tear loose the slender rootlets 
of small trees. Sheep, on the contrary, are exceedingly harmful 
dig. 25), especiall}' on steep slopes and where the soil is loose. In 
such places their small, sharp hoofs cut and powder the soil, break 
and overthrow the young trees, and often destroy promising young 
foi'ests altogether. In many places the effect of the trampling is to 
destroy the forest floor and to interfere very seriously with the flow 
of streams. In the Alps of southern France sheep grazing led to the 
destruction, rirst, of the mountain forests, and then of the grass which 
had replaced them, and thus left the soil fully exposed to the rain. 
Great floods followed, beds of barren stones were spread over the 
fertile fields by the force of the water, and many rich valleys were 
almost or altogether depopulated. Besides the loss occasioned in this 
way, it has cost the French people tens of millions of dollars to repair 
the damage begun by the sheep, and the task is not yet finished. The 
loss to the nation is enormously greater than any gain from the moun- 
tain pastures could have been, and even the sheep owners themselves, 
for whose profit the damage was done, were losers in the end, for 
their industry in that region was utterly destroyed. 

BROWSING. 

Th(> third way in wliicli grazing animals injure the forest is by feed- 
ing on the young trees. In the western part of the ITnited States, 
where most of the forests sire evergreen, this is far less important 
than the damage from either tire or trampling, for sheep and other 
animals seldom eat young conifers if they can get other food. 
Even where broadleaf trees prevail browsing rarely leads to the 
destruction of any forest, although it commonl}- results in scanty 
young growth, often maimed and luisound as well. Goats are espe- 
cially harmful, and where tlicy abound the healthy reproduction of 
broadleaf trees is practically impossible. In the United States they 
are fortunately not common. Cattle devour tender young shoots 
and branches in vast quantities, often living for months on little else, 
and sheep are destructive in the same wa}'. Hogs also find a living 
in the forest, but they are less harmful, because a large part of their 
food consists of seeds and nuts. East of the Great Plains very large 
numbers of cattle and hogs are turned into the woods, but sheep 
grazing in the forest is most widel^v developed in the West, and espe- 
cially iu California, where it should be prevented altogether, in Ore- 
gon and Washington, where it should be regulated and restricted, and 
in some interior regions, like Wyoming and Mew Mexico, when; it 



88 

should be rigidly' excluded from all sleep inountnin reo-ions, and eare- 
I'ulh^ regulated on niui'e level ground. 

FOREST INSECTS. 

Insects are constantly injuring the forest, just as year by year they 
bring loss to the farm. Occasionally their ravages attain enormous 
proportions. Thus a worm, which afterwai'ds develops into a sawflv, 
has since 18S3 killed nearly every full-grown larcli in the Adirondacks 
l)V eating away the leaves. Even the small and vigorous larches do 
not escape altogether from these attat'ks. Conifers, such as the larch 
and spruce, are much more likeh' to sutler from the attacks of insects 
than broadleaf trees. About the year 187t) small bark beetles began 
to kill the mature spruce trees in the Adirondacks, and ten years 
later, when the worst of the attack was past, the forest had been practi- 
cally deprived of all its largest spruces. This pest is still at work in 
northern New Hampshire and in iSIaine. 

FOREST FUNGI. 

Fungi attack the forest in many ways. Some kill the roots of trees, 
some grow upward from the ground into the trees and change the 
sound wood of the trunks to a useless rotten ma.ss, and the minute 
spores (or seeds) of others float through the air and come in contact 
with every external part of the tree above ground. Wherever the 
wood is expo.sed there is danger that spores will find lodgment and 
breed disea.se. This is a .strong reason why all wounds, such as those 
made in pruning, should be covei-ed with some substance like j)aint or 
tar to exidude the air and the sj)oi-es it carries. 

WIND IN THE FOREST. 

The effect of wind in the virgin forest is not wholly injurious. 
Although in many regions it overthrows great immbers of old trees, 
their removal is usually followed by a vigorous young growth where 
the old trees stood. In this way the wind helps to keep the forest 
full of young and healthy trees. But it also breaks and l)lows down 
great numbers of useful growing members of the forest (tig. 26). 
Much of this windfall occurs among shallow-rooted trees, or where 
tlie ground is .soft l»ecause soaked with water, or where the trees have 
been weakened })y unsoundness or tire. Some storms are strong 
enough to break the trees they can not overthrow. Damage from 
wind is not unconnnon in many parts of the United States, and in 
places the lo.ss from it is very serious. Near the town of High Springs, 
in Alachua County, Fla., for example, in a region very subject to 
storms, there is a tract of many square miles, once covered with 



3'.) 

Longleaf Pino, oror which practically all the troos wore killed l>y a 
great storm several years ago. Some were thrown Hat. some were so 
racked and so hroken in the top that they died, and very many were 




diail 111 Uie ulyuiiJii: purest Ucscrvi;, WaaluiigLuu. 



snapped oti' 15 to 30 feet above the ground. There is little nse in 
taking precautions against such great calamities, yet the loss from 
windfall may be very much reduced liy judicious cutting. An 
unbroken forest is least exposed. 



40 



SNOW IN THE FOREST. 



8now often loads down, l)reaks, and cni.sbo.s tall j-oiui','- trees (tig. 27), 
especially if wet snow falls heavily before the broadleaf trees have 
shed their foliaye in tlie fall. Such injury is difficult to guard against. 




-A young siiruci; luadrd will 



hut it is well to know tiiat very slim, tall trees suffer more than those 
whose growth in diameter and height have kept better pace with each 
other. In many regions snow is so us(>ful in protecting the soil 
and the young trees that the lianu it docs is (juitc ovcrlialanced by its 
benefits. 



41 



FOREST FIRES. 

Of all the foes which attack the ■\V(^()cl lands of Nortli America no 
otlici- is so tcrrihle as fire. Forest tires sprinjij from many different 
causes. They are often kindled along railroads by sparks from the 
locomotives. Carelessness is responsible for many tires. Settlers and 
farmers clearing land or Vmrning grass and brush often allow the fii'e 
t<} escape into the wt^ods. Someone may drop a half-})urned match or 
tiie glowing tobacco of a pipe or cigar, or a huntei- or prospector may 
neglect to extinguish his camp tire, or may build it where it will bur- 
i-iiw into t!ic Ihit'k dulf far beyond his i-eaeh. to sniuliler for days, or 




s~ll r tt u„ tubs t liiL kllltd \ rii ol I td 1 r iui o ii dt 1 bj joun„ till 1 ut I 1 
I r and Western Heml I Olvmi 1 r tl cr\ W ushint,t n 

weeks, and perhaps to l)reak out as a destructive fire long after he is 
gone. Many lires are set for malice or revenge, and the forest is often 
burned over by huckleberry pickers to increa.se the next season's 
<;rowth of berries, or by the owners of cattle or sheep to make better 
pasture for their herds. 

Fire sometimes renews an old forest by killing the veterans and so 
permitting vigorous young trees to take their place (tig. 'Jo). 

There is danger from forest tires in the dry portions of the spring 
and summer, but those w'hich do most harm usuallj- occur in the fall. 
At whatever time of the year they appear, their destructive power 
{lepends very nuich on the wind. They can not travel against it except 



42 

when burning up hill, and not even then if the wind is strong. The 
wind may give them .strength and .speed 1)y driving them swiftly 
through unburned, infiummaljle forests, or it may extinguish the 
iiercest hre in a short time by turning it back over its path, whei-e 
there is nothing left to burn. Tii lighting forest fire.s the wind is 
always the first thing to eonsidi-r, and it.s direction must l)e carefully 
watched. A sudden change of wind maj^ check a lire, or may turn it 
oflf in a new direction and perhaps threaten the li\es of the men at 
work by driving it suddenly down upon them. 

HISTORIC FOREST FIRES. 

When all the conditions arc favoralile, forest tires sometimes reach 
gigantic proportions. A few such fires have attained historic impor- 
tance. One of the.se is the Miramichi fire of 1825. It began its great- 
est destruction about 1 o'clock in the afternoon of October 7 at a 
place about 60 niih's above the town of Newcastle, on the Miramichi 
River in New Brunswick. Before 10 o'ldock at night it was 20 miles 
below Newcastle. In nine hours it had destroyed a Itelt of forest 80 
miles long and 25 miles wide. Over more than two and a half million 
acres almo.st every living thing Avas killed. Even the fish were after- 
wards found dead in heaps along the river banks. Fi\e hundred and 
ninetv buildings were burned, and a number of towns, including New- 
castle, Chatham, and Douglastown, were destroyed. One hundred and 
sixty persons pei'ished and nearly a thou.sand head of stock. The loss 
from the Miramichi fire is estimated at !?30o.(t(i(». not liicludiMg the 
value of the tim))er. 

In the majority of such forest fires as this the destruction of the 
timber is a more serious loss by far than that of the cattle and build- 
ings, for it carries with it the impoverishment of a whole region for 
tens or even hundreds of years afterwards. The loss of the s(um})age 
value of the timber at the time of the fire is but a small part of the 
damage to the neighborhood. The wages that would have been caiiied 
in limibering, added to the value of the produce that would h;ive been 
purchased to supply the lumber camps, and the taxes that would have 
been devoted to roads and other jjublic improvements, furnish a uuich 
truer measure of how nuu-h, sooner or latei-, it costs a region w lieu its 
forests are destroyed by fiiv. 

The Peshtigo fire of October. Is71. was still more severe than the 
Miramichi. It covered an artni of o\('i' 2,(»00 square miles in W'iscon 
sin, and involved a loss, in timber and other property, of many mil- 
lions of dollars. Between 1.200 and 1,500 persons perished, including 
nearly half the population of Peshtigo, at that time a town of 2,00C 
inhabitants. Other fires of about the same time were most destructive 
in Michigan. A strip about -tO miles wide and ISO miles long, extending 
across the central part <jf the Stiite from Lake Michigan to Lake 1 luron,^ 



4S 

was devastatod. The estimated loss in tinibei-was a)M)iit 4,000.0(10, 000 
feet board measure and in money over §10.(»00.()(MI. Sev(M-al imndred 
persons perished. 

In the early part of Septeiuher, issl, great tires eovered more tiian 
1,800 square miles in various parts of Michigan. The estimated loss 
in property, in addition to many hundred thousand acres of valuable 
timber, was more than $2,800,0o0. Over .5.000 persons were made 
destitute, and the number of lixes lost is variously estimated at from 
1.50 to 500. 

The most destructive tire of more recent years was tiiat which 
started near Hinckley, Minn., September 1, 1894. While the area 
burned over was less than in some other g-reat tires, the loss of life 
and property was xery heavy. Hinckley and six other towns were 
destroyed, about 500 lives were lost, more than 2.000 persons were left 
destitute, and the estimated loss in property of various kinds was 
$25,000,000. Except for the heroic conduct of locomotive engineers 
and other railroad men the loss of life would hav'e been far greater. 

This tire was all the more deplorable because it was wholly unnec- 
essary. For many days l)efore the high wind came and drove it into 
uncontrollable fury it was ])urning slowly close to the town of Hinck- 
ley and could have l)een put out. 

MEANS OF DEFENSE. 

The means of fighting forest tires are not everywhere the .same, for 
they burn in many ditlerent ways; but in every case the best time to 
right a tire is at the beginning, before it has had time to spread. A 
delay of even a verj- few minutes may permit a tire that at tirst could 
easily have l)eeu extinguished to gather headway and get altogether 
beyond control. 

When tliere is but a thin covering of leaves and other waste on the 
ground a tire usually can not burn very hotly or move with much 
speed. The tires in most hardwood forests are of this kind. They 
seldom kill large trees, but they destroy seedlings and saplings and 
kill the bark of older trees in places near the ground. The hollows 
at the foot of old Chestnuts and other large trees are often the result 
of these hres. which occur again and again, and so enlarge the wounds 
instead of allowing them to heal. Moderate tires also occur in dense 
coniferous forests when ouly the top of a thick layer of dutf is dry 
enough to burn. The heat may not be great enough to kill any but 
the smallest and tenderest .vouug trees, but that does not mean that 
such tire.s do nt) harm. The future of the forest depends on ju.st such 
voung growth, and whenever the forest floor, which is so necessary 
both to the trees and for the water supply, is injured or destroyed by 
fire, the forest sutlers harm. 



44 



STTRFACE FIRES. 



Surface fires (fig. 29) may t>e checked if they are feeble by beating 
them out with green liranches ov by raking the leaves away from a 
narrow strip across their course. The best tool for this purpose i.s a 
four-tined pitchfork oi' a common stable fork. In sandy regions a 
thin and narrow belt of sand is easilj* and quickly sprinkled over the 
ground with a shovel, and will check the spread of a weak fire, or 
even of a comparatively hot one if there is no wind. Dirt or .sand 
thrown on a liurning lir<' is one of the best of all means for putting it 
out. 




. 29.— A surfiioe (ire burning slowly against lliu wind. soutLern N 



In den.se forests with a heavy forest floor lires arc t)fteii hot enough 
not onl}' to kill the standing timl)er but to consume the trunks and 
branches altogether, and even to follow the roots far clown into the 
ground. In forests of this kind fire spreads easily, creeping along on 
the surface or through the dufl' or under the bark of rotting fallen 
trees. . In the same way it clim])s dead standing trees and ))reaks out in 
bursts of flame high in the air. Dead trees help powerfully to spread 
a fire, for in high winds loose pieces of their burning bark are carried 
to almost incredible distances and drop into the dry forest far ahead, 
while in calm weather they scatter burning fraguients all about them 
when they fall. (See lig. 30.) 



45 



GROUND FIRES. 



When (he dutl' is \-ery deep or the .soil jjeaty :i tiro miiy burn l)eneath 
the surfaces of the ground for weeks or even months, .sometimes show- 
ing it.s pre.sence by a little smoke, sometimes without giving anj' sign 
of life. Even a heavy rain may fail to quench a tiro of this kind, 
which often breaks out again long after it i.s believed to be entirely 
extinct. Fires which thus ))ui-n into the ground can sometimes be 




Fig. 30. — The effect of repeated fires. Not only the old trees are dead, but the seedlings which 
succeeded them have perished also. "Western Yellow Pine in the Black Hills Forest Reserve, South 
Dakota. 

checked only b}' digging a trench through the layer of decaying wood 
and other vegetable matter to the mineral .soil beneath. Ground tires 
usually burn much more .slowly than surface tires, but the}^ are excep- 
tionally long lived and very hard to put out. It is of the first impor- 
tance to attack .such fire.s quickly before they have had time t(j l)urrow 
far beneath the surfact^ of the ground. .Surface fires arc u.sually far 

173 



4H 

less troublesome, but in eit-hei' case tires which kill the trees are gen- 
erally repeated again and again until the dead timber is consumed 

(tio-. 31). 




',*«:,,- ^ 





Flii. 31.— Tlicrc-Piiltof 



li-fl wiUicnit 



BACK FIRING. 

The most dangerous and destructive forest tires are those which run 
)oth along the ground and in the tops of the trees. When a tire 
leconios intensely hot on the uiound, it may run up the bark, especially 
if the tr(>es are conifers, and burn in 
the crowns. Such lires are the fiercest 
and mo.st destructive of all. Traveling 
sometimes faster than a man can run, 
the}' consume enormous quantities of 
\aluable timber, burn fences, build- 
ings, and domestic animals, and en- 
danger or even destroy human lives. 
They can be checked only by rain or 
change of wind, or by meeting some 
barrier which they can not pass. A 
liari'ier of this kind is often made by 
.starling another tire some .listancc ahead of tlic principal one. This 
back tire, as it is called, must ))e allowed to l>ui-n only against the wind 
and toward the main tire, so that when the two tires meet both must 




Fig. 'SI. — Setting a back tire on the 
.*;irie of a roarl. Snntiiern New 



47 

(TO out for liu-k of fuel. To jii-ovt-tit it from nioving- with tho wind, ii 
haciv fire .should always Im started t)ii tho windward side of a road (tig. 
.'W) or a raivcd oi- sanded strip, oi' sonic other line which it can lie kept 
f I'oni crossing. If it i.s allowed to escape it ma}' become as dangerous 
as the main fire itself. Back fires are sometimes driven beyond control 
1>V a change of wind, l)ut the chief danger from their use is caused by 







t-i^ 



~'\ 



h[ —V liri. hue aloug a railroad with two cleared spates separated by a doublt r w il Irees 

intended to catth the sparks 

persons who, in excitement or fright, light tlicm at the wrong time or 
in the wrong iilace. Still, there is no other means of tighting fires so 
powerful and none so eti'ectivo when rightly used. 



FIRE LINES. 

Fire lines — strips kept free from all inflammable material by burn- 
ing or otherwise — are ver}- useful in checking small fires and of great 
value as lines of defense in fighting large ones. They are also very 
effective in keeping fires out of the woods, as, for example, along 
railroad tracks (fig. 33). But without men to do the fighting they are 
of as little u.se against really dangerou.s fires as forts without soldiers 
against invading armies. 



iL™^^"^ ""^ CONGRESS 

l§Mliih'\mm 



48 



FARMERS' BULLETINS. ^ ®®^ ^^^ 619 




thl^^{^i^fi;r^,!f^i:^t;-j;--^ Bulletins avai,a,,l.. fo. distribution, .howin^ 
application to an; Senator Rp^n^'llfi'^i^-.^A^'V^i":'' ';.' ^^nt to any a.klres, oS 



application to any S^natorVRepTesentatrve or ni^^e 7'" r.' '*^"' *'^ ""^^ ^'^'^'^-' 
tary of Agriculture, Wash , "ton nfThl '^•'*^*?''*'' "' ^'ongress, or to the Secre- 
tinue.1, being superse led SlS bulletins '''"' ""'^''"'"^ '^'■^^" ^'"''■' discon- 



16. Leguminous Plant.s. Pn 24 

21. Barnyard Manure. Pn 32 ' 

9j' S^t?^?,'"l'"S of Farm Animals. Pp 3- 

24. Hog Choi era and Swine Plague Pn u 

to. Peanuts: Culture and Uses, ^Pp 24 

27. Flax tor Seed nnd Fil„T Pi, li 



28. Weeds; And H 

29. Souring and ( 1 

30. Grape Diseases 

SI Alfnlfn, or I ,:r 



■ to Kill Til, 



11-11 m„lC,„,l 
I ll. I'n«liirts 



1 Milk 



r|.. 32, 



Pf. ■■% 



57. liii 
■>S. Th 
.59. H,-, 



Pp. 16. 

■ , ■' I's. Pp.12. 

:.'."'r,:.'o7. ^- "'■'■'■ 

use. Pp. 24. 

.Milk. Pp.29. 
■'■«nl on tlie Farm, pp 20 

I'.Tlili/.Ts. T'p.24. 
' ■ "i~ 1" >l<iriii Crain. Pp.21. 

"'■"i;'i 'iMiiiili'S. Pp.27. 

1 - 111' I ■illi.n Plant. Pp.:i2 
ii^.il(..li.,u. Pp.16. 
<'«■ I'll. 24. 
11 Forage Crop. Pp.20. 

nftie.sof Chicken.s. Pp.48 

''■t. Pp.4S. 

V .Miislirooms. Pp. 20. 

"II Hirds. Pp.40. 

'111. l'p.2I. 

Miili.Mi \V„rk-I. Pp.31. 

1- ■ 11 ilh- Farm. Pp. ic. 
1 I I 'rage Crop. Pp.24. 



Pp. lij 



'I'lij,-; I'ohacei 
'I'lre. I'p,40. 
im Produce. Pp.28 
"U the Farm. " 

■rse. Pp .IX 



Milk MS Food. Pp.:!.,). 
The Grain .Smuts. Pp. 20, 
' '"~ Pp',30' 



Pp.40, 

n. Pp.32. 



1 ii"..n.-r. Pp.22. 
""il. III. Pp..'i2. 
i'<i.;l,„., Pp.2.1, 
■'"Incli..n. Pp, 21, 
.^"1111. west, I>p.:!2, 
\\,,rk-IV, Pp,32. 



"6. Tomato (; 

77, TheLiniir 

78, Expr-iirin 

79, Expi'iii:, 

80, The I '.Ml 

81, r..rn 11;' 



i>, ii; 



I Soils, Pp,l.. 
Mii-i, Work-V. Pp, 

, Uork-Vl, P, 
■ I' 1M-, Pp, ],;, 

II ili'S.uih, Pp,24, 

Pp.23. 
lation Work-VII, 

Pp, 30, 

■US Plants, Pp..s2, 
at ion Work— Vin, 

Pp, 23. 



Pp.:!2. 
Pp. 32, 



Pp. 12. 
Pp. 30. 



96, Raisin- s 

97, Experini. 

98, SUTCosti.,1 

99, Ii,:-,v, 1-,,, 

100, If !■ 



. p 1 



s and Treatment, 

lion Work— IX 
Pp, 27. 

harden. Pp, 24, 

Farmers, Pp, 47. 

"iMutton. Pp.48. 
uli,,„ Work-X. Pp..32. 
S'lnth.rn Farmers. Pp.48 
-oi Shade Trees. Pp,:w 
1 I lie South. Pp.40. 



]^i y '" ' '■ii.-e Plants. Pp.4,s. 

103. l,,.p.in„en(,-latlon Work-X r. Pp. 

104. ^otcSOU Frost. Pp.24. 



;«?■ g'^Pei'mPlt station Work-xir. Pp 32 
106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. Pp. 4s '^' 
}nl- I'^P,?"'?™' Station Work-Xlil pp 32 

108. Saltbushes. Pp. 20 ' 

109. Farmers' Reading Courses Pi, ■•n 

110. Rice Culture in th,. r, ,i siatis it, ■>« 

111. Farmers' Interest in (i 1 s I ' Pn ^j 

112. Bread and Bread Jlakin^- I'p'io ' ' 

113. The Apple and How to Grow ii " Pn t) 

114. Experiment Station Work— XIV. Pn 28 

115. Hop Culture in California. Pp -7 ^' 

116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. Pp. is 

Pp.'''28 ^^''' """^ ^°''"'' '" "'^ Northwest. 
118. Grape Growing in the .South. Pp ,30 
U9. Experiment Station Work— XV Pn' 31 
120. Insects AfTecliiii; Tobacco Pp so * 



121. B, 

122. I 

123. I 



■il: Ii 



Pi.. :r.' 



130 


Til. ',1 


131 


II 


132 


Tn'i . . 


133. 


lA,.. 1,1 


l:!4. 


Tree PI 




Pp. 38 


135. 


Sorghun 


136. 


Earth H 


137. 


Tl... Mr 


I3.S. 


IlIlL 


139. 


Fill . 


140. 


Pnii.,,,., 


141. 


Pnnllrv 



'i'i"''T''T-V"- i"p-32- 

.1 I roilucts from InjurioiLs 

irm Buildings. Pp. 4s 
1 ides. pp. 42. 
I'sasFood. Pp. .32 
I 'p. 40. 

111. Bull Weevil. Pp. so, 

I 1 I'.i'-lion of (ileoniar- 

1. I i:iui,.i-. Pp. 11, 

1 . 111.- Wheat, Pp,40, 

II ".ik— XVIII, Pp. .32 

1 Rural School Grounds. 



1 Sirup Manufacture. Pp. 40, 



I'p, 40, 
^. Pp. 11; 



nil,. Fa 



.Pp, 111 



142. The Nidritive and Economic Valm. ,','f i.',„„i. 

143. The^hm'formation of Beef and Dairy Cattle, 
j.ll. ExrHTimentSlatitm Work— XIX Pn 39 

i ■ fiK, ;",!', f,''^"""''i'l "-^ "P .Insecticide!^- Pp.ag. 
I i- u'f,U i- ""'3 '^""Sicides. Pp.16. 

I ! K r^v^v, 'm"?:: ' ';:!:%"'' '"« «°"'h. pp. 30. 

Mil' 'r.^I" ■.■•'"";'." ■'^'■"'"? Work-XX. Pp. 32. 

hii, ( l<..,inii,i;.N,.w Land, Pp.24, 

161. Dairying in the South. Pp. 48 

la2. Scabies in Cattle. Pp o^ 

153. Orchard Enemies in the' Pacifie Northwest. 

1.54. Th^e^Fniit Garden: Preparation and Care. 

155. llo^wiWects Affect Health in Rural Districts. 

156. The Homo Vineyard Pp 24 

!-;• 7,'^<'P''0PaPatiori. of Plants, 'pp 24 

Pp. '28° ^""" ®°""' ^'"SalUm Ditches, 
150, Scab in sheep. 

160. Game Laws for 1902. Pp 56 

161 Suggestions for Fruit Growers. Pn 28 
i?.f i^.^Pf "J"''"' Station Work-X XI. ' 
163. Methods of Controlling the Poll Weevil 

161. Rape as a Forage Crop: 

165. Culture of the Silkworm 

166. Cheese Making on the? Farm 

167. Cassava. 

168. Pearl Millet. 

]m gjP^'rae"' Station Work-xxir, Pp.:^2. 
JZV' Pnnciples of Horse Feeding Pp 44 
i-.V J , Control of the Codling Motti.' Pp 24 
1 , 2. Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees ' 



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LTBRORy or ^ 



002 818'^ig^'^ 



